Résumés
Abstract
This article adopts an in-depth clinical perspective based on the theoretical framework of grief in order to examine individuals’ reactions following psychological contract violation over a period of 12 months. By focusing on emotional intra-psychic phenomena our study provides evidence of the enduring effects of psychological contract violation on individuals and the employment relationship.
We conducted a total of 60 interviews among 11 managers of a temporary employment agency that has implemented a series of organizational changes, mainly related to restructuring and downsizing decisions. The 11 managers interviewed have been chosen after having reported in a short survey that they experienced a psychological contract violation at work.
Our results indicate that psychological contract violation triggers the subject into a grief process only when violation deprives the individual from a highly invested object at work. In these circumstances, the grief process lasts longer than we originally expected since, over 12 months, we were unable to observe the grief process in its entirety among our participants. We also find that the grief process may be accelerated or stopped according to the capacity of the organization and the individual to offer new objects that satisfy the individual’s needs and thus may help the person mourn the loss experienced as a result of the violation. Finally, our results show that the grief process deeply alters the employment relationship and modifies the amount and intensity of energy that the participants of our study devote to their work.
Keywords:
- psychological contract violation,
- grief process,
- clinical psychology,
- longitudinal studies
Résumé
Cet article adopte une perspective clinique fondée sur le cadre théorique du deuil afin de d’examiner les réactions à la violation du contrat psychologique au cours d’une période de 12 mois. En se centrant sur les phénomènes émotionnels propres à l’individu, notre étude apporte des éléments d’observation des effets durables que peut engendrer la violation du contrat psychologique chez les personnes concernées, et de la manière dont ces effets altèrent leur relation d’emploi avec l’entreprise.
Nous avons mené, au total, 60 entretiens auprès de 11 gestionnaires d’une agence de travail temporaire qui a mis en place une série de changements organisationnels importants, portant essentiellement sur des restructurations et coupures de poste. Les 11 gestionnaires interrogés furent sélectionnés après avoir vérifié, au préalable lors d’une enquête brève, qu’ils avaient bien vécu un sentiment de violation du contrat psychologique.
Nos résultats montrent que la violation du contrat psychologique ne pousse le sujet à effectuer un travail de deuil que lorsque cette violation prive l’individu d’un objet fortement investi au travail. Dans ces circonstances, le deuil est un processus plus long que nous l’avions anticipé, puisqu’à l’issue de la période de collecte (soit 12 mois), nous n’avons pas été en mesure d’observer l’ensemble du processus chez les participants. Nos résultats indiquent aussi que le processus de deuil peut être accéléré ou ralenti selon la capacité de l’organisation et de l’individu à offrir ou trouver de nouveaux objets qui satisfont les besoins de l’individu et l’aident à accepter la perte vécue lors de la violation. Finalement, nos résultats montrent que le processus de deuil conduit à une modification importante de la relation d’emploi et qu’il change tant le contenu que l’intensité de l’énergie que les participants consacrent à leur travail.
Mots-clés :
- violation du contrat psychologique,
- processus de deuil,
- psychologie clinique,
- étude longitudinale
Resumen
Este artículo adopta una perspectiva clínica fundada en el marco teórico del duelo con el fin de examinar las reacciones a la violación del contrato sicológico durante un periodo de doce meses. Focalizando los fenómenos emocionales intrapsíquicos, nuestro estudio aporta elementos de observación de los efectos durables engendrados por la violación del contrato psicológico sobre las personas afectadas, y de la manera cómo esto afecta la relación de empleo.
Se llevó a cabo un total de 60 entrevistas con 11 directivos de una agencia de trabajo temporario que ha implementado una serie de cambios organizacionales importantes, incluyendo restructuraciones y reducción de puestos. Los once directivos entrevistados fueron seleccionados después de haber verificado, durante una breve encuesta previa, que ellos habían experimentado una violación de contrato sicológico.
Nuestros resultados muestran que la violación del contrato sicológico lleva al sujeto a efectuar un trabajo de duelo solamente cuando esta violación priva al individuo de un objeto que ha suscitado una fuerte implicación en el trabajo. En estas circunstancias, el proceso de duelo es más largo de lo que habíamos anticipado, puesto que al final del periodo de colecta de datos (es decir 12 meses), no fuimos capaces de observar el proceso en su totalidad tal que vivido por los participantes. Nuestros resultados indican también que le proceso de duelo puede ser acelerado o frenado según la capacidad de la organización y del individuo a ofrecer o encontrar nuevos objetos que satisfarán las necesidades del individuo y le ayudaran a aceptar la perdida vivida con la violación. Finalmente, nuestros resultados muestran que le proceso de duelo conduce a una modificación importante de la relación de empleo y que él cambia tanto el contenido como la intensidad de la energía que los participantes consagran a su trabajo.
Palabras clave:
- violación del contrato sicológico,
- proceso de duelo,
- sicología clínica,
- estudio longitudinal
Parties annexes
References
- Arnaud, Gilles. 2012. “The Contribution of Psychoanalysis to Organization Studies and Management: An Overview.” Organization Studies, 33, 1121-1135.
- Bankins, Sarah. 2015. “A Process Perspective on Psychological Contract Change: Making Sense of, and Repairing Psychological Contract Breach and Violation through Employee Coping Actions.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36 (8), 1071-1095.
- Bell, Emma and Scott Taylor. 2011. “Beyond Letting Go and Moving On: New Perspectives on Organizational Death, Loss and Grief.” Scandinavian Journal of Management, 27, 1-10.
- Blau, Gary. 2006. “A Process Model for Understanding Victim Responses to Worksite/Function Closure.” Human Resource Management Review, 16, 12-28.
- Blau, Gary. 2008. “Exploring Antecedents of Individual Grieving Stages during an Anticipated Worksite Closure.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 529-550.
- Bordia, Prashant, Simon Lloyd Restubog, and Robert Tang. 2008. “When Employees Strike Back: Investigating Mediating Mechanisms between Psychological Contract Breach and Workplace Deviance.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1104-1117.
- Chiaburu, Dan, Ann Chunyan Peng, In-Sue Oh, George Banks, and Laura Lomeli. 2013. “Antecedents and Consequences of Employee Organizational Cynicism: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83 (2), 181-197.
- Conway, Neil and Robert Briner. 2002. “A Daily Diary Study of Affective Responses to Psychological Contract Breach and Exceeded Promises.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23 (3), 287-302.
- Dulac, Tanguy, Jacqueline Coyle-Shapiro, Dan Henderson, and Susan Wayne. 2008. “Not All Responses to Breach Are the Same: The Interconnection of Social Exchange and Psychological Contract Processes in Organizations.” Academy of Management Journal, 51 (6), 1079-1098.
- Gould, Laurence. 1991. “Using Psychoanalytic Frameworks for Organizational Analysis.” Organisations on the Couch: Clinical Perspectives on Organisational Behaviour and Change. M. Kets de Vries, dir. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 25-44.
- Guinchard, Roland and Gilles Arnaud. 2011. Psychanalyse du lien au travail: le désir de travail. Paris: Elsevier Masson.
- Kahn, Susan and Andreas Liefooghe. 2014. “Thanatos: Freudian Manifestations of Death at Work.” Culture and Organization, 20, 53-67.
- Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. 1969. On Death and Dying. New York: Harper & Row.
- Levinson, Harry. 1976. Psychological Man. Cambridge: Levinson Institute.
- Levinson, Harry, Charlton Price, Keuneth Munden, Harold Mandl and Charles Solley. 1962. Men, Management and Mental Health. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Maciejewski, Paul, Baohui Zhang, Susan Block, and Holly Prigerson. 2007. “An Empirical Examination of the Stage Theory of Grief.” Jama, 297, 716-723.
- Meckler, Mark, Bruce Drake, and Harry Levinson. 2003. “Putting Psychology into Psychological Contracts.” Journal of Management Inquiry, 12, 217-228.
- Morrison, Elisabeth and Susan Robinson. 1997. “When Employees Feel Betrayed: A Model of How Psychological Contract Violation Develops.” Academy of Management Review, 22, 226-256.
- Parker, Ian. 2004. Qualitative Psychology: Introducing Radical Research. McGraw-Hill International.
- Raja, Usman, Gary Johns, and Filotheos Ntalianis. 2004. “The Impact of Personality on Psychological Contracts.” Academy of Management Journal, 47 (3), 350-367.
- Robinson, Susan and Elisabeth Morrison. 2000. “The Development of Psychological Contract Breach and Violation: A Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 525-546.
- Rousseau, Denise. 1989. “Psychological and Implied Contracts in Organizations.” Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 121-139.
- Rousseau, Denise. 1995. Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Rousseau, Denise. 2003. “Extending the Psychology of the Psychological Contract: A Reply to ‘Putting Psychology Back into Psychological Contracts’.” Journal of Management Inquiry, 12, 229-238.
- Rousseau, Denise and Sandra Robinson. 1994. “Violating the Psychological Contract: Not the Exception but the Norm.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 245-259.
- Shepherd, Dean. 2009. “Grief Recovery from the Loss of a Family Business: A Multi-and Meso-Level Theory.” Journal of Business Venturing, 24, 81-97.
- Tomprou, Maria, Denise Rousseau, and Samantha Hansen. 2015. “The Psychological Contracts of Violation Victims: A Post-Violation Model.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36 (4), 561-581.
- Zell, Deone. 2003. “Organizational Change as a Process of Death, Dying, and Rebirth.” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 39, 73-96.
- Zhao, Hao, Sandy Wayne, Brian Glibkowski, and Jesus Bravo. 2007. “The Impact of Psychological Contract Breach on Work-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology, 60 (3), 647-680.