Résumés
Abstract
Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, principals have taken on increased responsibilities. Principals who are thriving are praised for their resilience while those who are struggling are inundated with calls to build their resilience. In this conceptual article, we problematize the overemphasis on individual responsibility that is implicit in pro-resilience narratives. We reviewed the interdisciplinary literature and used an inductive approach to examine resilience narratives across historical and disciplinary arcs, with specific attention given to the school leadership literature. We argue that, within the context of this pro-resilience movement, if attention is not given to the structural conditions of work intensification, the education system is setting K–12 principals up to experience adverse unintended consequences. These consequences can worsen existing mental health issues, such as occupational burnout, or exacerbate mental health stigma. We conclude by suggesting that structural changes could disrupt this individualization of responsibility and overreliance on the personal resiliency of school principals.
Keywords:
- resilience,
- school principals,
- educational leadership,
- COVID-19,
- work intensification,
- mental health stigma
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Ahmedani B. K. (2011). Mental health stigma: Society, individuals, and the profession. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 8(2), 41–46.
- Ainsworth, S., & Oldfield, J. (2019). Quantifying teacher resilience: Context matters. Teaching and Teacher Education, 82, 117–128.
- Allan, C., O’Donnell, M., & Peetz, D. (1999). Three dimensions of labour utlisation: Job broadening, employment insecurity, and work intensification. Current research in industrial relations, 1.
- Allen, C. R., Birge, H. E., Angeler, D. G., Arnold, C. A., Chaffin, B. C., DeCaro, D. A., Garmestani, A. S., & Gunderson, L. (2018). Quantifying uncertainty and trade-offs in resilience assessment. Ecology and Society, 23(1). https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799062
- Allison, E. (2012). The resilient leader. Educational Leadership, 69(4), 79–82. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/the-resilient-leader
- Al-Omari, A. A. (2017). The relationships between personal resilience and leadership practices of school principals in Jordan. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 4(15), 149–163. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.415.3536
- Anderson, T. C. (2020). Academics, achievement gap, and nutritional health: The impact of Coronavirus on education. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators, 87(1), 14–17. https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/global-literature-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/resource/en/covidwho-907638
- Anthony, E. J., & Cohler, B. J. (Eds.). (1987). The Invulnerable Child. The Guilford Press.
- Armstrong, P. W. (2021). School business leaders and principal time use in England. In M. Lee, K. Pollock, & P. Tulowitzki (Eds.), How school principals use their time (pp. 157–170). Routledge.
- Attenberg, J. (2020, August 19). Is resilience overrated? The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/19/health/resilience-overrated.html
- Barton, M. A., Christianson, M., Myers, C. G., & Sutcliffe, K. (2020). Resilience in action: Leading for resilience in response to COVID-19. BMJ Leader, 4, 117–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/leader-2020-000260
- Baylis, L. (2020, April 7). Pandemic pendulum. EdCan Network, https://www.edcan.ca/articles/pandemic-pendulum/
- Beausaert, S., Froehlich, D. E., Devos, C., & Riley, P. (2016). Effects of support on stress and burnout in school principals. Educational Research, 58(4), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2016.1220810
- Bethune, A. (2020, September 16). COVID-19: Importance of resilience and relationships. Education Support. https://www.educationsupport.org.uk/blogs/covid-19-importance-resilience-and-relationships
- Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: The Minnesota symposia on child psychology (1st ed., Vol. 13). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315803029
- Bonanno, A. G., & Mancini, D. A. (2008). The human capacity to thrive in the face of potential trauma. Journal of the American Academy, 121(2), 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-1648
- Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Lusk, D. (2017, August 16). The dark side of resilience. The Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2017/08/the-dark-side-of-resilience
- DeMatthews, D., Carrola, P., Reyes, P., & Knight, D. (2021). School leadership burnout and job-related stress: recommendations for district administrators and principals. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues, and Ideas, 94(4), 159–167, https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2021.1894083
- Dulude, E., & Milley, P. (2020). Institutional complexity and multiple accountability tensions: a conceptual framework for analyzing school leaders’ interpretation of competing demands. Policy Futures in Education, 19(1), 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210320940134
- Earp, J. (2020, August 12). Changing school leadership during COVID-19. Teacher Magazine, https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/changing-school-leadership-during-covid-19
- Faubert, B., Pollock, K., & Hauseman, C. (2019). Superintendents' work (intensification) in a shifting policy climate: Enacting a student discipline strategy. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 190, 49–56. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/cjeap/article/view/61777
- Fleming, J., & Ledogar, R. J. (2008). Resilience, an evolving concept: A review of literature relevant to Aboriginal research. Pimatisiwin, 6(2), 7–23. https://journalindigenouswellbeing.co.nz/volume-6-2-summer-2008/resilience-an-evolving-concept-a-review-of-literature-relevant-to-aboriginal-research/
- Flessa, J. (2014). Learning from school leadership in Chile. Comparative and International Education / Éducation Comparée et Internationale, 43(1). https://doi.org/10.5206/cie-eci.v43i1.9237
- Friedman, I. A. (1995). School principal burnout: the concept and its components. Wiley, 16(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030160209
- Gordon, K. A. (1995). Self-concept and motivational patterns of resilient African American high school students. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984950213003l
- Higgins, J. M. (1994). The management challenge (2nd ed.). Macmillan.
- Holder, S. M., Peterson, E. R., Stephens, R., & Crandall, L. A. (2019). Stigma in mental health at the macro and micro levels: implications for mental health consumers and professionals. Community Mental Health Journal, 55(3), 369–374.
- Horwood, M., Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., Riley, P., Guo, J., & Dicke, T. (2021). Burning passion, burning out: the passionate school principal, burnout, job satisfaction, and extending the dualistic model of passion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(8), 1668–1688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000664
- Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2004). Resilient teachers: Resisting stress and burnout. Social Psychology Education, 7, 399–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-004-0975-0
- Hudson, L., Mahendrarajah, S., Walton, M., Pascaris, M. J., Melim, S., & Ruttenberg-Rozen, R. (2021). Leadership in education during COVID-19: learning and growing through a crisis. Journal of Digital Life and Learning, 1(1), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.51357/jdll.v1i1.113
- Hunter, A., & Chandler, G. (1999). Adolescent resilience. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 31(3), 243–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.1999.tb00488.x
- Ihme, K. R. M., & Sundstrom, P. (2020). The mindful shield: The effects of mindfulness training on resilience and leadership in military leaders. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 57(2), 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12594
- Isaacs, A. J. (2012). Resiliency and the individual demographics of school leaders: Making a difference in the quality of educational leadership. Journal of Research in Education, 22(1), 128–162.
- Jagger, O., & Lewith, G. (2016). Building resilience through leadership. InnovAiT, 9(6), 347–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/1755738016634382
- Kelly, H. (2020, September 30). Leader wellbeing amid ongoing crises. The International Educator. https://www.tieonline.com/article/2779/leader-wellbeing-amid-ongoing-crisis
- Korosteleva, E. A., & Petrova, I. (2020, April 14). Resilience is dead. Long live resilience? Instituto Affari Internazionali Commentaries, 20(22). https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/resilience-dead-long-live-resilience
- Kress, M. (2020, March 18). Principals without a playbook: Leadership amid the pandemic. Teach for America. https://www.teachforamerica.org/stories/principals-without-a-playbook-leadership-amid-the-pandemic
- Kumar, N. L., & Luthar, S. S. (2020). Resilient schools: Survey reveals insights from students and faculty amid COVID-19. National Association of Independent Schools. https://www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/fall-2020/resilient-schools-survey-reveals-insights-from-students-and-faculty-amid-covid-19/
- Lane, K. E., McCormack, T. J., & Richardson, M. D. (2013). Resilient leaders: Essential for organizational innovation. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 6(2), 7–26.
- Lantieri L., Nambiar M., Harnett S., & Kyse E. N. (2016). Cultivating inner resilience in educators and students: the Inner Resilience Program. In K. Schonert-Reichl & R. Roeser (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness in education: Mindfulness in behavioral health (pp. 119-132). Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3506-2_8
- Lazaridou, A. (2020). Personality and resilience characteristics of preschool principals: an iterative study. International Journal of Educational Management, 35(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-07-2020-0330
- Lazaridou, A., & Beka, A. (2015). Personality and resilience characteristics of Greek primary school principals. Educational Management, Administration, and Leadership, 43(5), 772–791. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143214535746
- Lee, M., Pollock, K., & Tulowitzki, P. (Eds.). (2021). How school principals use their time. Routledge.
- Li, Z., Dai, J., Wu, N., Jia, Y., Gao, J., & Fu, H. (2019). Effect of long working hours on depression and mental well-being among employees in shanghai: The role of having leisure hobbies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(24), 4980. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244980
- Li, M., Eschenauer, R., & Persaud, V. (2017). Between avoidance and problem solving: Resilience, self-efficacy, and social support seeking. Journal of Counseling and Development, 96(2), 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12187
- Loeher, J., & Shwartz, T. (2005). The power of full engagement: Managing energy, not time, is the key to high performance and personal reward. Free Press.
- Lowe, G. (2020, April 6). Healthy organizational responses to the coronavirus pandemic. University of Toronto Press Blog. https://utorontopress.com/blog/2020/04/03/healthy-organizational-responses-to-the-coronavirus-pandemic/
- Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 739-795). Wiley.
- Luthar, S. S., & Zelazo, L. B. (2003). Research on resilience: An integrative review. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 510–549). Cambridge University Press.
- Martínez-Marti, M. L., & Ruch, W. (2017). Character strengths predict resilience over and above positive affect, self-efficacy, optimism, social support, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(2), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1163403
- Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1985). The role of sex and family variables in burnout. Sex Roles, 12, 837–851. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287876
- Masten, A. S. (1999). Commentary: The promise and perils of resilience research as a guide to preventive interventions. In M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and Development: Positive Life Adaptations (pp. 251–257). Plenum Press.
- Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19(3), 921–930. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407000442
- McCann, M. C., Beddoe, E., McCormick, K., Huggard, P., Kedge, S., Adamson, C., & Huggard, J. (2013). Resilience in the health professions: a review of recent literature. International Journal of Wellbeing, 3(1), 60–81, https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v3i1.4.
- Munby, S. (2020, Mach 27). 3 tips for leading a school through the COVID-19 crisis. Ontario Institute for Education Leadership Blog. https://www.education-leadership-ontario.ca/application/files/2915/8583/9053/Munby-Leading-COVID-19-Crisis-Mar-27-19.pdf
- Münch, N., Mahdiani, H., Lieb, K., & Paul, N. W. (2021). Resilience beyond reductionism: Ethical and social dimensions of an emerging concept in the neurosciences. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 24(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-020-09981-0
- Offutt, S. M. (2011). An examination of the characteristic, resilience, and leadership practices in public school elementary principals [EdD dissertation, West Virginia University]. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/3039
- Olsson, L., Jerneck, A., Thoren, H., Persson, J., & O’Bryne, D. (2015). Why resilience is unappealing to social science: Theoretical and empirical investigations of the scientific use of resilience. Science Advances, 1(4), e1400217. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400217
- Ontario Catholic Principals’ Council. (2018). Being a resilient leader: Part 1 and 2. https://cpco.on.ca/files/4215/3374/9122/PL_Brochure_2018-19.pdf
- Ontario Institute for Educational Leadership. (2013). The Ontario Leadership Framework, https://www.education-leadership-ontario.ca/application/files/8814/9452/4183/Ontario_Leadership_Framework_OLF.pdf
- Ontario Principals’ Council. (2020, October 8). Building resiliency [Workshop]. https://calendar.principals.ca/Default/Detail/2020-10-08-1300-Building-Resiliency
- Osmond-Johnson, P., Campbell, C., & Pollock, K. (2020, May 6). Moving forward in the COVID-19 era: Reflections for Canadian education. EdCan Network. https://www.edcan.ca/articles/moving-forward-in-the-covid-19-era/
- Ozbay, F., Johnson, D. C., Dimoulas, E., Morgan III, C., Charney, D., & Southwick, S. (2013). Social support and resilience to stress: From neurobiology to clinical practice. Psychiatry, 4(5), 35–40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921311/
- Ozmusul, M. (2017). We need resilient school leaders in the face of chaos and complexity. Education Reform Journal, 2(2), 17–25. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED581594.pdf
- Papaioannou, A., Papavassiliou-Alexiou, I., & Moutiaga, S. (2022). Career resilience and self-efficacy of Greek primary school leaders in times of socioeconomic crisis.” International Journal of Educational Management, 36(2), 164–178. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-01-2021-0024
- Patterson, J. (2001). Resilience in the face of adversity. School Administrator, 58(6), 18–24.
- Patterson, J. L., & Kelleher, P. (2005). Resilient school leaders: Strategies for turning adversity into achievement. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
- Patterson, J. L., & Patterson, J. H. (2009). Staying positive in negative times. Educational Leadership, 67(2), 45–49. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/staying-positive-in-negative-times
- Pega, F., Náfrádi, B., Momen, N. C., Ujita, Y., Steicher, K. N., & Prüss-Üstün, A. M. (2021). Global, regional, and national burdens of ischemic heart disease and stroke attributable to exposure to long working hours for 194 countries, 2000–2016: a systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Environment International, 154, 106595, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106595
- Pollock, K. (2020). School leaders’ work during the COVID-19 pandemic: A two-pronged approach. International studies in Educational Administration, 48(3), 38–44. https://www.edu.uwo.ca/faculty-profiles/docs/other/pollock/School-Leaders-Work-During-the-COVID-19-Pandemic-A-Two-Pronged-Approach.pdf
- Pollock, K., & Hauseman, C. (2019). The use of email and principals’ work: A double-edged sword. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 18(3), 382–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2017.1398338
- Pollock, K., & Wang, F. (2020). School principals’ work and well-being in Ontario: What they say and why it matters. https://www.edu.uwo.ca/faculty-profiles/docs/other/pollock/July%202020%20ON%20Report%20-%20School%20Principals%20Work%20and%20Well-Being%20in%20Ontario.pdf
- Pollock, K., Wang, F., & Hauseman, D. C. (2015). Complexity and volume: An inquiry into the factors that drive principals’ work. Societies, 5(2), 537–565. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5020537
- Runner, I. H., & Marshall, K. (2003). “Miracle survivors” promoting resilience in Indian students. Tribal College, 14(4), 15. https://tribalcollegejournal.org/miracle-survivors-promoting-resilience-indian-students/
- Rutter, M. (1999). Resilience concepts and findings: Implications for family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 21, 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.00108
- School Act, R.S.B.C. 1996, c. 412. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/education/administration/legislation-policy/legislation/schoollaw/revisedstatutescontents.pdf
- Shaw, J., McLean, K. C., Taylor, B., Swartout, K., & Querna, K. (2016). Beyond resilience: Why we need to look at systems too. Psychology of Violence, 6(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000020
- Simon, S., & Gibson, M. T. (2019). Principal resilience and vitality in extremis: The scenario of involuntary occupational dissolution. International Journal of Educational Management, 33(4), 709–720.
- Steward, J. (2014). Sustaining emotional resilience for school leadership. School Leadership and Management, 34(1), 52–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2013.849686
- Toronto District School Board. (2020), #TDSBWellness for staff. https://www.tdsb.on.ca/In-Person-Learning/Resources-During-Covid-19/Staff-Resources/TDSBwellness
- Traynor, M. (2018). Guest editorial: What’s wrong with resilience. Journal of Research in Nursing, 23(1), 5–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987117751458
- Virtanen, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Ferrie, J. E., Gimeno, D., Marmot, M. G., Elovainio, M., Jokela, M., Vahtera, J., & Kivimäki, M. (2009). Long working hours and cognitive function: The Whitehall II Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(5), 596–605. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn382
- Walker, A. (2021). Jamaican secondary school principals’ work and occupational well-being. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario]. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/7877/
- Wallace, J. E. (2010). Mental health and stigma in the medical profession. Health, 16(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459310371080
- Wang, F., Pollock, K. E., & Hauseman, C. (2018). School principals’ job satisfaction: The effects of work intensification. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 185, 73–190. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/cjeap/article/view/43307
- Wang, F., & Pollock, K. (2020). School principals' work and well-being in British Columbia: What they say and why it matters. https://edst-educ.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2014/07/Understanding-School-Principals-Work-and-Well-Being-BC-Final-Report-August-6-2020.pdf
- Wang, F., Hauseman, C., & Pollock, K. (2021). “I am here for the students’: Principals’ perception of accountability amid work intensification.” Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Accountability, 34, 33–56, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09368-6.
- Ward, M. (2020, March 12). Child abuse a big concern during COVID-19 outbreak. CTV News. https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/child-abuse-a-big-concern-during-covid-19-outbreak-1.4862149
- Werner E. (1995). Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(3), 81–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772327
- Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from Childhood to Midlife: Risk, Resiliency and Recovery. Cornell University Press.
- Windle, G. (2011). What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 21(2), 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959259810000420