Résumés
Résumé
Distinguant deux sens de « communauté morale », cet article soutient que certains animaux appartiennent à la communauté morale dans les deux sens : (1) ils sont des patients moraux dignes de considération morale directe et équivalente, mais également (2) des agents moraux au sens où ils sont capables de reconnaître, d’assumer et d’adresser aux autres des exigences minimales de bonne conduite et de savoir-vivre. Au moyen de la notion d’« attitudes réactives » développée par Peter F. Strawson, je soutiens que les animaux sociaux qui sont à la fois objets et sujets d’attitudes réactives forment des communautés morales au second sens, dans la mesure où ils se traitent mutuellement comme des individus ayant des obligations et tenus à des exigences de bonne volonté minimale dans leurs interactions interpersonnelles. Distinguant l’agentivité morale du raisonnement moral, je soutiens que la capacité de raisonner abstraitement sur les principes et les conséquences de nos actions nous imposent plus de responsabilités que n’en ont d’autres animaux, mais que cela ne fait pas nécessairement de nous des agents moraux plus compétents que d’autres animaux sociaux. Je termine en donnant un aperçu de quelques implications de ce changement de perspective en éthique animale.
Abstract
This article draws the distinction between two meanings of “moral community” and maintains that certain animals belong to moral communities in both senses of the term: these animals are (1) moral patients worthy of direct and equivalent moral consideration, but also (2) moral agents in the sense that they are capable of recognizing and respecting minimal requirements of good conduct and manners as well as expecting and demanding the same from other members of their community. By way of the notion of “reactive attitudes” developed by Peter F. Strawson, I maintain that social animals who are at once objects and subjects of reactive attitudes constitute moral communities in the second sense of the term, in that they treat each other as individuals who have obligations and who are bound by the demand for a minimum of good-will in their interpersonal interactions. Distinguishing between moral agency and moral reasoning, I maintain that the capacity to reason abstractly about the principles and consequences of our actions gives us more responsibilities than other animals have, but that this does not necessarily make us more competent moral agents than other social animals. I conclude with an overview of some of the implications that this change in perspective has for animal ethics.
Parties annexes
Bibliographie
- Aaltola, Elisa, « Affective Empathy as Core Moral Agency: Psychopathy, Autism and Reason Revisited », Philosophical Explorations: An International Journal for the Philosophy of Mind and Action, vol. 17, no 1, 2014, pp. 76-92.
- Adams, Carol J. et Donovan, Josephine, The Feminist Care Tradition in Animal Ethics, New York, Columbia University Press, 2007.
- Anderson, James R., et al., « Third-party Social Evaluation of Humans by Monkeys », Nature communications, vol. 4, no. 1561, 2013.
- Andrews, Kristin, « Understanding Norms Without A Theory of Mind », Inquiry, vol. 52, no. 5, 2009, pp. 433-448.
- Andrews, Kristin, « Ape Autonomy? Social Norms and Moral Agency in Other Species », in Klaus Petrus et Marcus Wild (dir.), Animal Minds and Animal Ethics. Connecting Two Separate Fields, Bielefeld, Transcript Verlag, 2013.
- Andrews, Kristin et Gruen, Lori, « Empathy in Other Apes » in Heidi L. Maibom (dir.), Empathy and Morality, New York, Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Arpaly, Nomi, Unprincipled Virtue: An Inquiry into Moral Agency, New York, Oxford University Press, 2003.
- Balcombe, Jonathan, Pleasurable Kingdom: Animals and the Nature of Feeling Good, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
- Balcombe, Jonathan, « Animal Pleasure and Its Moral Significance », Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol. 118, 2009, pp. 208–216.
- Bartal, Inbal Ben-Ami, Decety, Jean Decety et Mason, Peggy, « Empathy and Pro-Social Behavior in Rats », Science, vol. 334, no. 6061, 2011, pp. 1427-1430.
- Bekoff, Marc, et Allen, Colin, « Intentional Communication and Social Play: How and Why Animals Negotiate and Agree to Play » in Marc Bekoff et John A. Byers (dir.), Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological perspectives, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Bekoff, Marc, « Wild Justice and Fair Play: Cooperation, Forgiveness, and Morality in Animals », Biology & Philosophy, vol. 19, no. 4, 2004, pp. 489-520.
- Bekoff, Marc, The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy and Why They Matter, Novato, New World Library, 2007.
- Bekoff, Marc et Pierce, Jessica, Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2009.
- Boehm, Christopher, Moral Origins. The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame, New York, Basic Books, 2012.
- Boesch, Christophe, et al., « Altruism in Forest Chimpanzees: The Case of Adoption », PLoS ONE, vol. 5, no. 1, 2010.
- Brosnan, Sarah F. et de Waal, Frans B., « Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay », Nature, vol. 425, no. 6955, 2003, pp. 297-299.
- Cavalieri, Paola, The Animal Question: Why Nonhuman Animals Deserve Human Rights, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Church, Russell, « Emotional Reactions of Rats to the Pain of Others », Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, vol. 52, no. 2, 1959, pp. 132-134.
- Clark, Stephen R. L., The Nature of The Beast: Are Animals Moral?, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1984.
- Clement, Grace, « The Ethic of Care and the Problem of Wild Animals », Between the Species, vol. 13, no. 3, 2003, pp. 1–12.
- Clement, Grace, « Animals and Moral Agency: The Recent Debate and Its Implications », Journal of Animal Ethics, vol. 3, no. 1, 2013, pp. 1-14.
- Cova, Florian, « Two Kinds of Moral Competence: Moral Agent, Moral Judge » in Burt Musschenga et Anton van Harskamp (dir.), What Makes Us Moral? On the Capacities and Conditions for Being Moral, Library of Ethics and Applied Philosophy, vol. 31, 2013, pp. 117-130.
- Darwin, Charles, The Descent of Man And Selection in Relation to Sex, vol. 1, London, John Murray, 1871.
- Darwin, Charles, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, London, John Murray, 1872.
- Deonna, Julien et Teroni, Fabrice, The Emotions. A Philosophical Introduction, Abingdon, Routledge, 2012.
- DeGrazia, David, Taking Animals Seriously: Mental Life and Moral Status, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- de Waal, Frans B., Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1996.
- de Waal, Frans B., Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved (dirigé par Stephen Macedo et Josiah Ober avec un commentaire de Robert Wright, Christine M. Korsgaard, Philip Kitcher et Peter Singer), Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2006.
- de Waal, Frans B., « Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy », Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 59, 2008, pp. 279–300.
- de Waal, Frans B., Leimburger, Kristin et Greenberg, Amanda R., « Giving is Self-Rewarding for Monkeys », Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 105, 2008, pp. 13685–13689.
- Donaldson, Sue et Kymlicka, Will, Zoopolis. A Political Theory of Animal Rights, New York, Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Donaldson, Sue et Kymlicka, Will, « Do We Need a Political Theory of Animal Rights? », Presentation at Minding Animals International Conference, Utrecht, Netherlands, 2012.
- Donaldson, Sue et Kymlicka, Will, « A Defense of Animal Citizens and Sovereigns », LEAP : Law, Ethics and Philosophy, vol. 1, no. 1, 2013.
- Donaldson, Sue et Kymlicka, Will, « Unruly Beasts: Animal Citizens and the Threat of Tyranny », Canadian Journal of Political Science, vol. 47, no. 1, 2014.
- Eshleman, Andrew, « Moral Responsibility », in Edward N. Zalta (dir), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014, (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/moral-responsibility/).
- Fenton, Andrew, Looking for Moral Norms in All the Wrong Places? On the Nature and Significance of Nonhuman Animal ‘Entangled Normativity’, (à paraître).
- Francione, Gary, Animals, Property and the Law, Philadelphie, Temple University Press, 1995.
- Francione, Gary, Introduction to Animal Rights: Your Child or the Dog?, Philadelphie, Temple University Press, 2000.
- Gilligan, Carol, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1982.
- Giroux, Valéry, « Les droits fondamentaux des animaux sensibles. Une approche antispéciste », Thèse de doctorat de l’Université de Montréal, département de philosophie, 2011.
- Greenwald, Anthony G. et Banaji, Mahzarin R., « Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-esteem, and Stereotypes », Psychological Review, vol. 102, no. 1, 1995, pp. 4-27.
- Gruen, Lori, « The Morals of Animal Minds », in Colin Allen, Marc Bekoff et Gordon Burghardt (dir.), The Cognitive Animal, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2002, pp. 437–442.
- Gruen, Lori, Ethics and Animals: An Introduction, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
- Gruen, Lori (dir.), The Ethics of Captivity, New York, Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Haidt, Jonathan, « The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment », Psychological Review, vol. 108, no. 4, 2001, pp. 814-834.
- Haidt, Jonathan, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom, New York, Basic Books, 2006.
- Haidt, Jonathan et Joseph, Craig, « De l’unité des intuitions morales à la diversité des vertus », Terrain, vol. 48, 2007, pp. 89-100.
- Hattori, Yoko, Kuroshima, Hika et Fujita, Kazuo, « Cooperative Problem Solving by Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella): Spontaneous Division of Labor, Communication, and Reciprocal Altruism », Journal of Comparative Psychology, vol. 119, no 3, 2005, pp. 335–342.
- Held, Virginia, Feminist Morality: Transforming Culture, Society, and Politics, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1993.
- Horner, Victoria, et al., « Spontaneous Prosocial Choice by Chimpanzees », Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 108, no. 33, 2011, pp. 13847–13851.
- Horta, Oscar, « Zoopolis, Intervention and the State of Nature », LEAP: Law, Ethics and Philosophy, vol. 1, no. 1, 2013.
- Joy, Melanie, Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs and Wear Cows – An Introduction to Carnism, San Francisco, Conari Press, 2010.
- Kheel, Marti, Nature Ethics: An Ecofeminist Perspective, Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.
- Korsgaard, Christine, « Fellow Creatures: Kantian Ethics and Our Duties to Animals », Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol. 24, 2004, pp. 77-110.
- Korsgaard, Christine, « Morality and the Distinctiveness of Human Action », in Frans de Waal (dir.), Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2006.
- Masserman, Jules H., Wechkin, Stanley et Terris, William, « Altruistic Behavior in Rhesus Monkeys », American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 121, no. 6, 1964, pp. 584–585.
- McMahan, Jeff, « The Meat Eaters », The New York Times, ‘Opinionator’, 19 September 2010.
- Musschenga Burt, « Animal Morality and Human Morality », in Burt Musschenga et Anton van Harskamp (dir.), What Makes Us Moral? On the Capacities and Conditions for Being Moral, Library of Ethics and Applied Philosophy, vol. 31, 2013, pp. 99-116.
- Nussbaum, Martha C., Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership, Cambridge, Havard University Press, 2006.
- Okasha, Samir, « Biological Altruism », in Edward N. Zalta (dir), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2013 (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/altruism-biological/).
- Pluhar, Evelyn B., Beyond Prejudice: The Moral Significance of Human and Nonhuman Animals, Durham, Duke University Press, 1995.
- Pluhar, Evelyn B., « The Nonhuman Roots of Human Morality » in Klaus Petrus et Marcus Wild (dir.), Animal Minds and Animal Ethics. Connecting Two Separate Fields, Bielefeld, Transcript Verlag, 2013.
- Poole, Joyce, Coming of Age with Elephants, Chicago, Trafalgar Square, 1996.
- Preston, Stephanie D. et de Waal, Frans B., « Empathy: It’s Ultimate and Proximate Bases », Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 25, no. 1, 2002, pp. 1-71.
- Prinz, Jesse, « The Emotional Basis of Moral Judgments », Philosophical Explorations, vol. 9, no. 1, 2006, pp. 29-43.
- Prinz, Jesse, The Emotional Construction of Morals, New York, Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Rachels, James, Created From Animals, The Moral Implications of Darwinism, New York, Oxford University Press, 1990.
- Regan, Tom, The Case for Animal Rights, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985.
- Ridley, Mark et Dawkins, Richard, « The Natural Selection of Altruism », in Philippe J. Rushton et Richard M. Sorrentino (dir.), Altruism and Helping Behavior, Hillsdale, Erlbaum, 1981.
- Rowlands, Mark, Can Animals Be Morals?, New York, Oxford University Press, 2012.
- Sapontzis, Steve F., Moral, Reason and Animals, Philadelphie, Temple University Press, 1987.
- Schapiro, Paul, « Moral Agency in Other Animals », Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, vol. 27, no. 4, 2006, pp. 357-73.
- Schwitzgebel, Eric et Rust, Joshua, « The Behavior of Ethicists », in W. Buckwalter et J. Sytsma (dir.), Blackwell Companion to Experimental Philosophy, Wiley-Blackwell (à paraître).
- Schwitzgebel, Eric et Rust, Joshua, « The Moral Behavior of Ethics Professors: Relationships among self-reported behavior, expressed normative attitude, and directly observed behavior », Philosophical Psychology, vol. 27, no. 3, 2014, pp. 293-327.
- Silk, Joan B. et al., « Chimpanzees are Indifferent to the Welfare of Unrelated Group Members », Nature, vol. 437, no. 7063, 2005, pp. 1357-1359.
- Singer, Peter, « Morality, Reason, and the Rights of Animals », in Frans de Waal (dir.), Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2006.
- Smith, Wesley J., A Pig is a Dog is a Boy: The Human Cost of the Animal Rights Movement, New York, Encounter Books, 2010.
- Strawson, Peter F., « Freedom and Resentment », Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 48, 1962, pp. 1-25.
- Takimoto, Ayaka, Kuroshima, Hika et Fujita, Kazuo, « Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella) are Sensitive to Others’ Reward: An Experimental Analysis of Food Choice for Conspecifics », Animal Cognition, vol. 13, no. 2, 2010, pp. 249–261.
- Tappolet, Christine, Émotions et valeurs, Paris, PUF, 2000.
- Trivers, Robert L., « The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism », The Quarterly Review of Biology, vol. 46, no. 1, 1971, pp. 35-57.
- Watson, Gary, « La responsabilité et les limites du mal. Variations sur un thème de Strawson », Les ateliers de l’éthique/The Ethics Forum, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 146-178.
- Wechkin, Stanley, Masserman, Jules. H. et Terris, William., « Shock to a conspecific as an aversive stimulus », Psychonomic Science, vol. 1, no. 1-12, 1964, pp. 47-48.
- Wilkinson, Gerald S., « Reciprocal Food Sharing in the Vampire Bat », Nature, 308, 1984, pp. 181–184.
- Wright, Robert, The Moral Animal. Why We Are the Way We Are. The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology, New York, Vintage Books, 1994.
- Young, Iris Marion, Justice and the Politics of Difference, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1990.